Apple Computer, founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, is a legendary success story of two young computer enthusiasts who developed and successfully marketed a microcomputer for general public use. The Apple line and especially the Apple Macintosh set new directions for home computing and helped skyrocket the interest in the home computing arena.

1976

The Apple I debuts at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, California. In May, Jobs sells his VW and Wozniak sells his Hewlett-Packard programmable calculator to raise $1,350 to finance production of the Apple I boards.

Steve Jobs uses his parents' garage to build the first machines. The Apple I computer is announced at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, California. In July, the Apple I computer board sells for $666.66.

By the end of 1976, ten retail stores were marketing the Apple I computers. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak attended the Atlantic City Computer Convention.

1977

In January 1977, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Armas C. "Mark" Markkula incorporate the "Apple Computer" Company. Markkula was a former marketing manager at Intel and Fairchild Semiconductor, who added significant business expertise to the Jobs and Wozniak Team. Apple production moves from Steve Job's garage to a building in Stevens Creek Boulevard, Cupertino, California. Mike Scott becomes president of Apple.

In April 1977, Rob Janoff, art director for Regis McKenna Advertising, designs the Apple Logo. That same month, the Apple II computer is unveiled at the West Coast Computer Fair. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak unveiled the Apple II computer in April 1977. It came standard with 48k memory and sold for $1,298. The Apple II was the first personal computer to generate color graphics. The Apple II included a keyboard, power supply and attractive case.

1979

The Apple II+ computer is announced, with 48K memory.

1979

Apple begins working on the Apple III under the code name "Sara."

1980

Apple Computer goes public in December 1980. An initial offering of 4.6 million shares of Apple common stock sell for $22 per share. Every share is bought within minutes of offering, making it the largest public offering since Ford went public in 1956. Apple employees numbered over 1,000.

Apple Computer announced the Apple III computer in September, at the National Computer Conference.

Apple begins work on the Apple IIe under the code name "Diana."

1981

Apple Computer had an installed base of 300,000 Apple II computers. Apple Computer had about 3,000 Apple dealers worldwide. Apple reorganized. Mike Markkula replaced Mike Scott as president; Steve Jobs succeeded Markkula as chairman and Mike Scott became vice-president. By November 1981, Apple employees numbered 2,500 and the Apple II computer's installed base exceeded 300,000 units.

Apple introduces the "ProFile," its first hard drive, which holds 5 Mb.

1982

(December) Apple Computer becomes the first personal computer company to reach $1 billion in annual sales.

(Franklin Computer introduced an Apple II clone, called the ACE 100.)

1983

John Sculley joined Apple Computer in April 1983 as its 4,450th employee. Sculley was, at 44, one of the oldest employees at Apple, where the average age was 27. Sculley, formerly president of Pepsi-Cola, takes over the presidency of Apple.

Apple Computer enters the Fortune 500 at number 411 in under five years. About 10,000 Apple II computers were given to California schools by September (1983).

The Apple III+ computer was announced.

1984

Apple announces the Macintosh. It comes standard with 128k memory and sells for $2,495. Apple Computer runs its controversial "1984, Big Brother" commercial during the Superbowl broadcast announcing the Apple Macintosh computer (January).

Apple Computer wins copyright infringement suit against Franklin Computer, setting a precedent for PC software protection.

By November, Apple has sold its two millionth Apple II.

1985

In February, Jobs and Wozniak receive the National Technology Medal from President Ronald Reagan at the White House.

In February, 1985, Steve Wozniak resigned from Apple Computer to start a new company to develop products in the home video area.

In September 1985, Steve Jobs leaves Apple to form a new computer company, NeXT.

The Macintosh XL (formerly called the "Lisa") is dropped from the Apple product line. The remaining 7,000 Lisa's in Apple's inventory are purchased by a company called "Sun Remarketing" in 1986. (See "Where's Lisa Now" by Michael J. Posner, in "Historically Brewed" magazine, Oct/Nov 1993, Issue #2.)

Over 400,000 Apple IIc computers were sold in first year of production.

1986

(Feb.) Apple Computer purchases a Cray X-MP/48 supercomputer (valued at $15.5 million) to simulate future hardware and software architectures and accelerate new product development. By the end of 1986, Apple has over 5,500 employees.

1987

In 1987, John Sculley publishes his 429 page book "Odyssey" (Harper & Row) outlining his challenges and experiences at Apple.

Sculley gives keynote address at the 1988 MacWorld Exposition, which boasts of 25,000 attendees and 350 exhibitors.

1988

In October, Apple reports net sales of $4.07 billion and net income of $400.3 million.

In June 1989, Apple donates $2 million worth of Apple computers to schools.

Apple Computer files a lawsuit against Microsoft Corporation surrounding the Windows operating system. (Apple loses the lawsuit in 1992.)

1992

Apple loses its lawsuit against Microsoft Corporation over the Windows operating system.

1993

Apple Computer Inc. decides to license the Macintosh operating system to other vendors for both the PowerPC and Intel x86 systems.

Economic recession of the 1990's hits Apple Computer as well as others in the industry.

Apple replaced John Sculley with a new president and CEO, Michael Spindler.

Apple Computer announced planned layoffs of 2,500 employees.

1995-1996

In 1996, Apple announced a first quarter fiscal 1996 loss of $69 million and its shares dropped 12 percent, to about $29.88.

News stories circulated regarding Apple Computer as a possible target for acquisition by Sun Microsystems or another company.

Apple's new operating system, Copeland, is scheduled for release in 1997.

1996

(January) Sun Microsystems and Apple discuss a possible merger, but talks fall through.

Apple's Board of Directors replaces President Michael Spindler with board member Gilbert Amelio.

(March) Apple names Fred Anderson as its Chief Financial Officer.

(December) Apple reported a $120 million loss for quarter.

(December) Apple Computer buys NeXT Software, Inc. from Steve Jobs for $430 million.

Steve Jobs soon became an adviser to Apple CEO GIlbert Amelio and was added to Apple's 10-member executive committee.

1997

(February 4) Apple undergoes a management restructuring.

Marco Landi, who had been named as Chief Operating Officer in May 1996, resigned February 18th.

Apple announced planned layoffs. Media claims 3,000 to 5,000 as an estimated number. Actual number turns out to be closer to 5,400.

(March) Larry Ellison, founder and CEO of Oracle Corporation, mentions he may put in a bid for Apple Computer. (April) Ellison puts off making a bid for Apple.

(July 9) Apple's Board of Directors asks Gilbert Amelio to resign as Chairman and CEO of Apple. The Chief Financial Officer, Fred Anderson, reportedly takes over day-to-day operations until a replacement can be selected.

Sandra L. Kurtzig began ASK Computer Systems in 1971. ASK (from "Arie and Sandy Kurtzig") started as a part time business in a spare bedroom. One of its first products was inventory control software for Halcyon Company and California Microwave, and later its successful MANMAN manufacturing management software offered through Tymshare. ASK Computer Systems grew to $50,000 in sales by 1973.

"PONG" and the Beginning of Atari

In 1971, Nolan Bushnell (1943-) founded Atari to manufacture and market video games. In 1976, Bushnell sold Atari to Time Warner, Inc. The home and video arcade game "Pong" became a wide success and Atari became the leader in the computer video game industry.

The Video Market Slump

By 1982, the video game industry was a $3 billion business. Atari's success attracted many competitors. The public's demand for the more simplistic video games dropped sharply, and profits fell. The years 1983 through 1985 were especially bad for video game vendors.

By 1984, Atari was deep into debt. Time Warner, Inc. sold Atari to Jack Tramiel and other investors. In May 1984, Tramiel created Atari Corporation, manufacturer and marketer of personal computers and video game systems.

In July, Atari Corporation acquired certain microcomputer and video game assets from the Atari, Inc. subsidiary of Warner Communications, Inc. Tramiel, formerly of Commodore Business Machines, focused Atari on creating a new personal computer.

In 1995, Atari obtained an agreement with WalMart to place its Jaguar home game systems in 400 of WalMart's superstores across the country. Atari failed to market the Jaguar effectively and sales were very poor. WalMart returned the remaining inventory to Atari, who was unable to meet financial obligations and decided to eventually sell off the company to JTS Corporation in July 1996.

Atari Home Computers

Atari also produced home computers which utilized a TV monitor. A wide variety of games were available for the Atari systems.

Atari 400

The Atari 400 home computer came with 16K of RAM and 10K of ROM. The model 400 used typewriter-style keyboard, with pressure-sensitive wipe-clean keyboard panel. It had 57 alphanumeric keys and four special function keys. It could support color, sound, inverse video, full-screen editing, and four-way cursor control. The Atari 400 used the 6502B microprocessor and had a .56 microsecond cycle and 1.8 MHz clock speed.

The 400 weighed just under 6 pounds and plugged into a television set for display. It was introduced in 1978. It cost about $500, later reduced to about $340 (1982).

The 800 used the 6502 processor, had 8K RAM expandable to 48K, and could access external cassette player or floppy drives. It was announced in 1978, although it did not ship until later. It weighed under 10 pounds and cost about $999.

Atari 1200XL

The Atari 1200XL came with Basic, Pascal, Fortran and Assembly languages. The 1200XL supported 64K memory, expandable, and provided color display. It sold for about $899.

Atari 520ST

In January 1985, Atari introduced the 520ST computer, which had the ability to support word processing, spreadsheets, video games, and music. It was the first home computer built to incorporate the MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) standards. The 520ST was very successful and Atari's financial position improved.

Atari 1040ST

Atari went public in 1986, raising over $54 million in new capital. Atari then released the 1040ST computer, with additional technical advancements. In 1987, Atari began shipping its MEGA computers, which had increased graphics and music capabilities. In 1988, Atari purchased and then sold the Federated Group of electronics stores.

1972

Atari founded by Nolan Bushnell.

1976

Atari is purchased by Time Warner.

1978

Atari announces the Atari 400 home computer

1978

Atari announces the Atari 800 home computer

1983

Atari announces the 1200XL home computer

1984

Time Warner sells Atari to Jack Tramiel.

1985

52ST computer introduced.

1986

Atari goes public. Atari Corporation introduces the ATARI 1040ST personal computer. The 1040 ST is the first personal computer to offer a megabyte of memory for less than $1,000. The ATARI ST line utilizes the Motorola 6800 chip, a 32 bit processor over a 16-bit channel. The ST line computers have a speed of 8 MHz. Other Atari products include the 2600 VCS and the 7800 ProSystem video game consoles. Atari's primary competitor in the computer video game market is Nintendo.

1986

Atari 7800 home video game introduced.

1987

MEGA computer released. XE system released.

1987

On October 4, Atari Corporation purchased all outstanding shares of the Federated Group, Inc. ("Federated") a retailer of consumer electronics products.

1988

Atari sells its interest in Federated Group.

1989

Portfolio, palmtop computer introduced.

1990s

The TT030 graphics workstation and the portable ST computer are introduced. Atari Falcon030 multimedia system introduced. The Lynx, the world's first color, hand-held video game introduced.

1992

Atari suit against Nintendo charging Nintendo with illegally monopolizing the video game market was thrown out by a U.S. District Court. Atari downsized its international operations.

1993

Atari announced "Jaguar" a 64-bit interactive media entertainment system and sold 200,000 units the first year.

1994

Atari entered into an agreement with Sega which allowed Sega rights to Atari's video game patents in exchange for a $90 million investment by Sega in Atari.

1996

On July 30, after severe financial difficulties and marketing set backs with its Jaquar line, Atari stock was sold to JTS Corporation of San Jose, a maker of hard drives. Atari operations are dismantled.

1996

December 23, JTS sold all remaining Jaguar inventory to Tiger Software, a catalog company dealing with closeout merchandise.

A SAMPLING FROM THE 1982 ATARI CATALOG...

The December 1982 Atari Home Computer Product Catalog lists the following copyrighted names belonging to Atari, Inc.

An Invitation to Programming; Asteroids ; Atari Macro Assembler and Program-Text Editor ; Atari Memory Module;

Atari Service and Design; Atari Special Additions; AtariWriter; Avalanche; Caverns of Mars; Centipede; Dig Dug; Energy Czar;

Graph It; Juggles' House; Kingdom ; Macro Assembler; Missile Command ; Music Composer; My First Alphabet; Scram ;

Star Raiders; SuperBreakout; Telelink; The Atari Connection; The Communicator; The Educator; The Entertainer;

The Home Manager; The Programmer; The Home Filing Manager; Timewise; Video Easel; Atari 400 computer

Atari 800 computer; Atari 410 Program Recorder (cassettes); Atari 1010 Program Recorder (cassettes); Atari 1020 Color Plotter;

Atari 810 Disk Drive (floppy disks); Atari CX85 Numerical Keypad; Atari 835 Direct Connect Modem; Atari 1025 80-Column Printer;

Atari 830 Acoustic Modem ; A Sampling of Atari Video Game Systems; Atari called its video game systems "Video Computer Systems"; or "VCS." ;

Some of the Atari video game systems included:

Atari VCS 2600 (woodgrain & black finish, used 6507 chip, 128 bytes RAM)

Atari VCS 2600A (woodgrain & black finish; used 6507 chip, 128 bytes RAM)

Atari VCS 2600 (all black plastic; used 6507 chip)

Atari 2600 Jr. (much smaller case than those above)

Atari CX5200 (used 6502C chip, 16 K RAM)

Atari CX7800 (used 6502C chip, 4 K RAM)

Atari 5200 Advanced Games System (based on the Atari 400 computer)

Sears Tele-Games Video Arcade I (basically the same as the Atari 2600)

Sears Tele-Games Video Arcade IA (basically the same as the Atari 2600)

Sears Tele-Games Video Arcade II (a special revised version of the 2600)

See also:

Bell Labs was the major research and development entity within American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) and at one time employed over 25,000 people. At one time partly owned by Western Electric Company, Bell Labs became a subsidiary of AT&T after the divestiture in January 1983. Originally part of the American Bell Telephone Company founded in 1885, the research group officially took the name "Bell Labs" in January 1925. In 1940, Bell Laboratories conducted remote processing experiments utilizing one of the first remote terminals.

In 1945, AT&T Bell Laboratories employed physicists to work in semiconductor research. Included are William Schockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen.

The Bell Computer Model V12 was completed at Bell Telephone Labs in 1946.

"Bletchley Park" is not a company or organization name, but refers to a location in the United Kingdom where extremely valuable wartime research was conducted in early computing and codebreaking. Bletchley Park is an estate situated between London and Birmingham, England. It was the sight of highly intense, highly secret intelligence work during World War II.

Activities at Bletchley Park were so secret, that details were not made public until 1975. Bletchley was referred to under a variety of code names, such as "BP," "War Station X," "Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)," and others. The focus of the work was project Ultra. Ultra was the code name for activities to decrypt high level enemy communications in the war.

The Enigma was a machine used to code messages based on a series of rotating wheels.

The German High Command intelligence service, called the Abwehr, used one version of Enigma, while the German military used a slightly different version. The two versions presented two different problems for the Bletchley Park team in breaking the Enigma codes. The Germans were using the Enigma machines during the 1930's. In the late 1930's, before the breakout of war, the British Government Code and Cipher School (GC&CS) moved from its location in London, to Bletchley Park. In 1939, there were only about 100 people located at Bletchley. By 1942, the Bletchley teams were capturing and reading some 4,000 German military signals per day.

Bletchley Park was essentially a British intelligence operation from its earliest days. In September 1943, a special agreement was signed that allowed the incorporation of certain U.S. members into the British Ultra project. By 1944, there were over 7,000 people there in various capacities and on various projects. The Bletchley Park location was probably chosen originally since it was not far from railways which ran north, south, east and west, and its proximity to a roadway to London (now the "A5").

The Bletchley estate of approximately 581 acres, was originally part of Etone Manor and later owned by Sir Herbert Samuel Leon, a London Stockbroker. The GC&CS obtained the property around 1938. During the war, many additional structures were added, called simply Huts (e.g., Hut 1, Hut 2, etc.) where many of the assigned personnel conducted their secret work.

Bolt, Beranek and Newman or "BBN" is known for its involvement in early timesharing technologies and for its role in the development of the ARPANET. BBN was founded in 1948 by Professor Richard Bolt and Professor Leo Beranek of MIT. An MIT graduate student, Robert Newman, became a part of the team not long afterwards.

In 1886, William Seward Burroughs (1857-1898), a bank clerk with exceptional mechanical and mathematical skills, invented the register accountant, which was the first practical adding machine. Burroughs formed the American Arithmometer Company in 1886. By 1895, they had built and sold 284 machines, by 1900, 1,500 machines and by 1903, 4,500 machines.

In 1905, the American Arithmometer Company changed its name to Burroughs.

In 1921, the Burroughs Adding Machine Company acquired Moon-Hopkins Billing Machine Company, a maker of billing and bookkeeping machines. By 1932, there were over 12,000 employees in the Burroughs company and the products were in use around the world.

In 1949, Burroughs Adding Machine Company established an electronics research laboratory in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

In 1953, Burroughs Adding Machine Company changed its name to Burroughs Corporation.

By 1966, Burroughs Corporation had revenues of $493,777,928, which was a 77% increase in net earnings from the previous year. In the 1960's Burroughs was the world's largest producer of accounting machines, which, along with its adding machines and calculators, amounted to nearly $300 million of its world-wide revenues. In addition to accounting machines, adding machines, calculators, cash registers, and magnetic ink document processing equipment, Burroughs also produced computers data processing forms and supplies, computers, space and defense systems, and electronic components.

Burroughs entered the computer field in the 1950's. In 1966, Burroughs added to its computer product line, including the new third generation, medium sized B2500 and B3500 models, and the large scale B6500 series. Over 90% of the machines were delivered to customers on a lease basis.

See Also:

The game of chess was first played in around 550 A.D., in India.

In 1949, Alan Turing and David Champernowne wrote the specifications for the Turochamp, a one-move analyzing chess machine.

Claude Shannon of MIT developed one of the first chess playing machines, the Caissac.

When the Manchester Automatic Digital Machine (MADM) computer was completed in 1949, Alan Turing programmed it to play chess. The MADM was probably the first computer to be able to play a full game of chess.

In 1978, the computer program SARGON was the winner at the West Coast Computer Faire.

In about 1979, international chess grandmaster David Levy played against a program called CHESS 4.7, and won 3 out of 5 games.

Another chess playing progam from the 1970's included DUTCHESS, from Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, at one time the world-champion chess program.

Other programs of that time period included Chess Challenger 10 from Fidelity Electronics, Boris by Chafitz, Inc., CompuChess by DataCash, and Chess Champion from JS&A.

Charles Babbage Institute

"The Charles Babbage Institute was founded in 1978 as an alliance of industrialists, professionals and academicians whose purpose is to record and study the evolution of the digital computer and modern electronic communication technology.

CBI is a research institute dedicated to promoting the study of the history of information processing, bringing historical perspective to the study of its impact on society, and fostering the development of historical archives in the area of information processing.

Located on the campus of the University of Minnesota (Minneapolis), CBI maintains a very unique and valuable archival collection consisting of the records of individuals, and businesses, computer manuals, product literature, photographs, oral history interviews, and reference material for use by researchers." (Information courtesy of the Charles Babbage Institute) See Link:

By 1959, thousands of computers were in use in various business applications. Lack of standard business software was becoming a problem. On April 8, 1959, a meeting was held at the University of Pennsylvania Computing Center to set the format, agenda and list the proposed attendees for a formal meeting to discuss the issue of a common business language.

It was decided that three committees would be formed to deal with short-range, medium-range, and long-range objectives, under the direction of a Executive Committee. The long-range committee was never actually established. A Steering Committee was also formed to charter a course of action towards a common business language. They met on June 4, 1959 and decided to call themselves the Committee on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL). CODASYL established an Executive Committee to oversee the work of other committees.

The committees looked at several existing languages, including AIMACO, Comtran, FLOW-MATIC, Autocoder III, SURGE, Fortran, RCA 501 Assembler, Report Generator, and APG-1. The most influential of these languages were FLOW-MATIC and AIMACO. The name COBOL, for Common Business Oriented Language, was agreed upon by the Short-Range Committee on September 18, 1959, and the first version was drafted in December 1959.

COMPOSITION OF CODASYL COMMITTEES 1959

Charles A. Phillips; Chairman Codasyl Committee; Representing: Office of the Secretary of Defense

Joseph F. Cunningham; Vice-Chairman; Representing: Air Force Department

E.J. Albertson; Representing: U.S. Steel Corporation

Gregory Dillon; Representing: Dupont Company

Mel Grosz; Representing: Esso Standard Oil Company

Joseph H. Wegstein; Chair, Short-Range Committee; Representing: National Bureau of Standards

A.E. Smith; Chair, Intermediate-Range Committee; Representing: Department of the Navy

Unassigned; Chair, Long-Range Committee;

Grace M. Hopper; Advisor; Representing: Sperry Rand Company

Robert W. Bemer; Advisor; Representing: IBM Corporation

1959 First mention of COBOL (September)

1959 COBOL introduced in December

1960 Revised as COBOL 60

1961 Revised as COBOL 61

1962 COBOL 61 Extended is issued

1968 COBOL adopted as an American standard by the American National Standards Institute

Philips and Sony, two international electronics companies, produced a series of standards for compact disc recordings. Philips and Sony owned the patents on the technology and defined standards they then published in books of various colors.

Various different standards were published for different types of uses, and they often became known by the color of the binder they were published in.

These include:

-Red Book

The Red Book was published by Philips and Sony around 1985. It describes the standard for recording music on compact discs. The Red Book is also called the "Compact Disc Digital Audio" standard.

-Yellow Book

The Yellow Book was published in 1985 by Philips and Sony, two international electronics companies which own the patents to compact disc technology, to define the standard for recording computer data on compact discs

-Orange Book

-White Book

The White Book was published by Philips, Sony, JVC and Matsushita to define the standards for a Video CD system. The White Book standard includes the use of full-motion MPEG-1 video.

-Green Book

Commodore was founded in 1954 by Jack Tramiel and Manny Kapp as Commodore Portable Typewriter Company, a typewriter repair business. Commodore branched into adding machines and typewriters by 1956 and changed its name to "Commodore Business Machines." In the 1970's, Commodore acquired MOS Technology, a maker of computer chips.

Commodore also produced hand-held electronic calculators starting in the early 1970's, such as the Commodore Minuteman 3. Jack Tramiel took Commodore into the microcomputer business and introduced the Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) in January 1977. Commodore soon followed with the Commodore VIC-20, introduced in 1980, and the Commodore 64 in 1982. Over 1 million VIC 20 units were sold. By 1984, Commodore had sales in excess of $1 billion. Jack Tramiel left Commodore in 1983 to become CEO at Atari. (See Atari)

Commodore acquired Amiga Computer, Inc. in 1984, and produced a line of Amiga, multi-processing, graphics computers.

Commodore ran into financial difficulties and filed for bankruptcy in May 1994.

It was acquired a year later by the German computer company Escom AG.

1954

Commodore is founded in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Commodore starts as a typewriter sales and repair company.

1956

Commodore Portable Typewriter Company changed its name to Commodore Business Machines and added adding machines and other office equipment to its product line.

1970

Commodore produces an early hand-held calculator, the "Minuteman"

1970's

Commodore acquires MOS Technologies, makers of processor chips

1977

Commodore introduces the Commodore PET computer

1980

Commodore introduces the VIC 20

1982

Commodore runs an advertisement in the March 1982 issue of "Microcomputing" (page 39) with William Shatner promoting the Commodore personal computer.

1983

Commodore introduces the Commodore 64

1984

Commodore Japan Ltd. produces the Commodore SX-64 Ltd.

1984

Commodore acquires Amiga Computer, Inc.

1985

Commodore introduces the Amiga 1000 computer

1987

Commodore introduces the Amiga 500 and the Amiga 2000

1988

Commodore announces the Amiga 2500

1989

Commodore announces the Amiga 2500/030 with a 25 MHz CPU

1990

Commodore announces Amiga 3000, utilizing a Motorola 68030 chip

1992

Commodore announces the Amiga 4000, and the Amiga 1200

1993

Commodore announces the Amiga 4000/030

1994

Commodore runs into financial difficulties and files for bankruptcy in May.

1995

Escom AG, Germany's second largest computer company, purchases the assets of Commodore for about $12 million.

Selected Commodore Computers

Commodore VIC 20

Commodore introduced the VIC 20 in 1981. The Commodore VIC 20 used the 6502, 8-bit processor, had 5K memory and used the Commodore operating system. It came with a 64 key keyboard, four programmable function keys and auto repeating control keys. It could be connected to a TV or video monitor, and could display a screen 22 characters by 23 lines long. It also could support graphics, color and sound.

It was introduced at $300, but sales and volumes were good and prices soon dropped to $100 or less. The Commodore VIC 20 was extremely popular as a consumer computer.

The Commodore 64

The Commodore 64 used the 6510, 8-bit processor and the Commodore operating system. It came with 64K RAM, four programmable function keys, and could interface with a TV or video monitor. Options included Commodore disk drives and CP/M operating system, optional CP/M cartridge and Z80 processor, printer, cassette and modem. Available software included BASIC, a variety of games, and VICTERM communications software. It cost about $199 for a basic system, up to $599 with more options.

Commodore Executive 64

The Commodore Executive 64 utilized a 6510 CPU for Commodore DOS and an optional Z-80 for CP/M. It came with 64K RAM, 1 5-1/4 inch floppy drive (or two), a 7 inch CRT display (40 character by 25 lines), supported 16 colors and graphics. It was compatible with the Commodore 64 software. It ran on AC power and weighed about 28 pounds. Its dimensions were 14-1/2 inches by 14-1/2 inches by 5 inches. It sold for $995 to $1,495 depending on configuration. (1983)

The Commodore SX-64 was a portable computer produced by Commodore Japan Ltd. in about 1984.

The Commodore 128

The Commodore 128 was very similar to the Commodore 64, except for the increased memory to 128K.

Commodore PET 2001

The PET was based on a 6502 microprocessor. It has a 9 inch, 1000 character display screen (25 lines by 40 characters). There were several PET models. Model 2001-8 had a compact keyboard and a built-in tape cassette unit. Models 2001-16 and 2001-32, and later models labeled "CBM" instead of "PET" had full-sized keyboards and a separate tape cassette unit.

Commodore later changed the "PET" designation to "CBM" for Commodore Business Machine.

Commodore PET 4032

The 4032 was a later version of the PET 2001. It came with a 40 column 25 line display screen, full-size keyboard, 32K RAM, 18K ROM and came with BASIC 4.0. It sold for under $1,000 and was very popular as an in-school computer.

Commodore CBM 8032

The Commodore CBM 8032 came with 32K memory expandable to 96K. It used an 80 column by 25 line video display. The CBM 8032 is the business version of the PET 4032. It sold for just under $2,000 in 1983.

Commodore SUPERPET

The SuperPet was a special version of the PET designed at Waterloo University in Canada. It had all the features of the PET and the CBM 8032, with an additional 6809 processor and support for additional languages such as Waterloo's PASCAL, FORTRAN, APL, COBOL and others.

Commodore P128

The P128 was introduced in 1982. It came with 128K memory and could display 40 columns by 25 lines and an optional high resolution graphics display. It also had an optional Z80 plug in board which allowed the P128 to run the CP/M Plus operating system. It was based on the 6509 processor, and featured built in music and sound synthesizers. It sold for under $1,000.

Commodore B128

The B128 came with 128K memory expandable to 256K internal and 640 K external. It used an 80 column by 25 line green monochrome display, had a detachable keyboard, 10 function keys and a numeric keypad. It also had a slot for an optional Z80 plug in board. Available languages included BASIC 4.0, C-BASIC and PASCAL. It sold for under $1,700 in 1983.

Commodore BX128

The BX128 is very similar to the B128, with the addition of an 8088 processor, allowing the machine to run CP/M-86 and MS DOS. It sold for under $3,000.

Amiga 1000

The Amiga 1000 was introduced in 1984 as the first multi-tasking, graphical user interface microcomputer. It could run AmigaDOS and supported color graphics and sound.

Commodore also produced a variety of other Amiga systems, including the Amiga 2000.

References:

Commodore Business Machines, Inc.

PET/CBM Personal Computer Guide, Carol S. Donahue and Janice K. Enger,

Compaq is one of the largest producers of IBM compatible personal computers. They are famous for their high quality and reliability.

Brief Chronology of Compaq Computer

1982

Compaq Computer Corporation was founded by Rod Canion, Bill Murto and Jim Harris in February 1982.

1982

1983

COMPAQ Portable Computer rolled out through network of Authorized COMPAQ Computer Dealers. Compaq takes in revenues of $111 million, the greatest first-year sales in the history of American business.Compaq Computer Corp. has its initial public stock offering and raises $67 million. During this year, Compaq ships more than 53,000 portable computers and employs a total of 615 people at year end. COMPAQ PLUS introduced and shipped.

1984

COMPAQ Personal Computers were introduced into Europe.

1984

In June, COMPAQ DESKPRO family of desktop personal computers are introduced and shipped.

1984

In September, Compaq Computer Corporation opens a whollyowned subsidiary in France.

1984

By December, Compaq had shipped more than 149,000 personal computers worldwide and hired more than 700 people. The company employed more than 1,300 people at year-end.

1985

By February, Compaq Computer Corporation reported earnings for 1984 of $329 million, a computer industry record.

1985

In December, Compaq Computer Corporation securities began trading on the New York Stock Exchange. Compaq reaches a total employment of 1,860 at year end.

1985

In April, the COMPAQ DESKPRO 286 and COMPAQ PORTABLE 286 introduced and shipped.

1986

In February, Compaq Computer Corporation reports third year earnings of more than $503 million for 1985.

COMPAQ II Portable is introduced and shipped.

1986

In April, Compaq Computer Corporation joins the Fortune 500 faster than any company in history. Compaq ships its 500,000th computer.

1986

In September, the COMPAQ DESKPRO 386 was introduced and shipped.

1987

In November, Compaq Computer Corporation ships its 1 millionth personal computer. Compaq computer attained sales revenue of $1 billion.

1988

In February, Compaq Computer Corporation reports fifth-year sales of $1.2 billion dollars, setting the record as the fastest company to reach that mark.

1988

By December, Compaq Computer Corporation reaches worldwide employment of approximately 6,000.

1989

Compaq Computer Corporation reports sixth-year sales of $2.1 billion. Purchases 744 acres of land for future expansion adjacent to Compaq Center in northwest Houston.

1989

By June, Compaq Computer Corporation becomes the second largest supplier of business personal computers in Europe, surpassing Apple and Olivetti.

1989

In September, Compaq Computer Corporation purchases the former Wang Laboratories manufacturing facility in Sterling, Scotland for international service and repair operations.

1989

In October, the COMPAQ LTE/286 and COMPAQ LTE personal computers were introduced by Compaq Computer Corporation. These were the first notebook-sized computers to offer full functionality in a package measuring just 8-1/2 by 11 inches.

1989

In November, Compaq Computer Corporation introduced the COMPAQ SYSTEMPRO Personal Computer System as well as the COMPAQ DESKPRO 486/25.

1993

Compaq Computer splits its PC division into two separate divisions. Desktop division to be headed by John Rose. Portable PC Division to be headed by James Harzog. Compaq Computer achieves 8.3% of the personal computer market.

1995

1998 (January 26)

Compaq agrees to acquire Digital Equipment Corporation in a $9.6 billion deal in cash in stock. Compaq, headquartered in Houston, Texas, has over 18,900 employees. Digital, based in Maynard, Massachusetts, has over 54,900 employees. Compaq's 1997 sales were $24.6 billion. Digital's 1997 sales were $13.5 billion.

2002 - May - Hewlett-Packard and Compaq Merger

HP and Compaq merged their companies in May of 2002. The following links provide information regarding this historic merger.

The Compaq Portable was announced in 1982. It weighed about 28 pounds, used the Intel 8088 microprocessor, ran Compaq DOS (which was basically the same as MS DOS), and came with 128K RAM minimum. It was available with 1 or 2 5-1/4 inch floppy disk drives, a 9 inch CRT display (25 lines by 80 characters) and could support some graphics. It ran on AC power, and was about 20 inches by 15-1/3 inches by 8-1/2 inches high. It sold for $2,995 and was very successful. In 1983, the COMPAQ Portable Computer rolled out through network of authorized COMPAQ Computer Dealers. Compaq took in revenues of $111 million, the greatest first-year sales in the history of American business. Compaq Computer Corp. held its initial public stock offering and raised $67 million. During this year, Compaq shipped more than 53,000 portable computers and employed a total of 615 people at year end.

References:

 First known English language use of the word "computer" is found in writings of Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682). Browne defined "computers" as persons who reckoned the passage of time through the making up of calendars. The word "Computer" comes from the Latin "Computare" to think, or count. The meaning of the word computer has evolved over the past 248 years. Here are some examples:

The 1881 edition of Stormonth's English Language Dictionary defines computer as:

------ "One who numbers, counts, reckons, or calculates."

The 1882 edition of the Hurst and Company dictionary, based on Websters, defines computer as:

------ "One who reckons or estimates."

Dictionaries after World War II began defining the word computer in terms of a machine as well as a person.

For example:

The 1961 edition of Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines computer as:

------ "One who computes; an automatic electronic machine for performing calculations."

Although some dictionaries still carry both definitions, by the 1980's, the term computer is quite often defined as a device only, with little or no reference to its older definition.

The 1980 Oxford American Dictionary defines computer simply as:

On July 5, 1911, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company was founded.

The CTR was formed from four companies:

The "Tabulating Machine Company"

(founded by Herman Hollerith and sold in 1911)

The "Dayton Scale Company"

(Dayton, Ohio)

The "International Time Recording Company"

(Endicott, New York)

The "Bundy Manufacturing Company"

(Endicott, New York).

The Computing-Tabulating-Recording company later changed its name to

Control Data Corporation was founded on July 8, 1957, in Minnesota. Control Data began operations on September 1, 1957 with four employees. Initial capitalization of CDC was through the sale of 615,000 shares of common stock at $1 per share to approximately 300 stockholders. Total number of employees the first year was 13.

Included among the first corporate officers was William C. Norris, President. William Norris was also one of the founders of Engineering Research Associates (ERA), which was part of Sperry Rand.

Control Data Corporation changed its name to Ceridian in 1992, and spun off a subsidiary company called Control Data Systems. Control Data Systems maintained the computer products and services part of the business. Control Data Systems, based in Minnesota, (1996) has over 3,000 employees.

A Brief Chronology of Control Data Corporation

1958

CDC's first major business decision was the development of a large-scale, fully transistorized computer, the CDC 1604, released in 1958. CDC also announced the 1604 this year. CDC was sued by Sperry Rand Corporation. CDC reports a loss in earnings of $114,700. Revenues total $636,800. Total stockholders number 900. Total number of employees at CDC reaches about 260.

1959

CDC reported revenues of $4.5 million and announced the release of its second computer, the CDC 160. The model 160 was a desk-sized, solid-state computer designed for scientific applications. The CDC was designed by Seymour R. Cray (who later founded Cray Research).

1960

Control Data Corporation (CDC) acquired Control Corporation, a major supplier of supervisory control systems. CDC ships four model

1604 computers. The CDC 1604 was the most powerful computer of its time. Seymour R. Cray began development of the CDC 6600, a

large-scale computer. Total company earnings reach $551,000. Revenues exceed $9.6 million. Total employees numbered about 690.

1961

William Norris, President of Control Data Corporation (CDC) unofficially announced the new CDC 6600 computer in May 1961.

1961

The CDC 160A was announced in 1961 by Control Data Corporation. The CDC 160A had twice the computing power of the 160 (developed in 1959). The Model 160A sold for $90,000.

1962

Control Data Corporation (CDC) announced two new computers in 1962, the CDC 1604A and the CDC 3600.

1963

CDC revenues had exceeded $63 million. CDC established foreign subsidiaries in Australia, The Netherlands, Sweden West Germany, and France. Also in 1963, the large scale CDC 6600 (also designed by Seymour Cray) was announced and CDC acquired the Computer Division of Bendix Corporation.

1963-1966

CDC acquired more than 15 different companies, and had operations in over 20 countries. Sales for the period ending June 30, 1966 amounted to $167,613,943, which was reportedly down due to increased competition in the computer industry, including a greater emphasis on leased equipment being provided to customers rather than direct sales. In 1966, Control Data Corporation (CDC) installs first CDC 1700 computer at Bell Laboratories, Greensboro, North Carolina. The first CDC 3800 is installed at the U.S. Navy Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. Dual CDC 3600's were used at Cape Kennedy in the Apollo moon flight program. Employees at this time numbered 11,048. CDC was one of the only companies providing "super scale" computers during the mid 1960's. Some of the customers of the super scale CDC 6000 series were Westinghouse Corporation, NASA's Langley Research Center, Lockheed Aircraft Company, Smithsonian Institute Astrophysical Laboratory, Aerospace Corporation and several large universities.

1964

Control Data Corporation (CDC) shipped the first CDC 6600 computer (announced in 1963) to Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Livermore California. CDC acquires three companies: (1) Rabinow Engineering, maker of optical character reading equipment, (2) Transactor Business of the Stromberg Division of General Time, maker of data collection systems, and (3) Holley Computer Products, maker of computer peripheral products. The CDC 3200 computer is added to the product line. CDC stock splits 3 for 2. Earnings were $6.1 million. Revenues exceed $121 million. Employees number 6,861.

1965

Control Data Corporation (CDC) delivered its first model CDC 3100 computer. Earnings reached $7.9 million. Revenues reached $160 million. "Control Data Institutes" for computer training are established in the U.S. CDC employees number about 9,744.

1966

Control Data Corporation (CDC) installed first CDC 1700 computer at Bell Laboratories, Greensboro, North Carolina. The first CDC 3800 is installed at the U.S. Navy Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. Dual CDC 3600's were used at Cape Kennedy in the Apollo moon flight program. Earnings show loss of $1.9 million. CDC revenues exceed $167 million. Employees number 11,048.

1967

Control Data Corporation (CDC) acquires Autocon Industries and CEIR, Inc. CDC employees number 14,881.

1968

Control Data Corporation (CDC) revenues exceed $830 million. Consolidated earnings were $45.5 million. CDC announces the CDC 7600, the most powerful computer of its time. CDC acquires Commercial Credit Corporation (largest acquisition by CDC as of this date). CDC employees number 37,091. CDC acquired Commercial Credit Corporation in 1968, which gave it entrance into the field of financial services. Control Data filed also a large anti-trust suit against IBM, which IBM was forced to settle five years later. The settlement gave Control Data acquisition of IBM's Service Bureau Corporation, valued at over $100 million. The CDC-IBM suit was the first time that a computer system was used to store and retrieve massive amounts of information, over 500,000 pages of information from IBM alone. CDC's use of computer technology helped its attorneys eventually win the arguments and bring about a settlement in CDC's favor. The CDC 7600, the most powerful computer in the world at that time, was also announced. Revenues exceeded $1 billion in 1971 and the CYBER 70 family of computers was announced. Revenues had doubled to $2 billion by 1976.

1969

Control Data Corporation (CDC) revenues exceeded $1 billion. Consolidated earnings were $53.2 million. CDC employees numbered about 47,152.

1972

Control Data Corporation (CDC) entered into an agreement with National Cash Register Company(NCR) to form a new company "Computer Peripherals Inc." for manufacturing computer peripherals. CDC acquired Syntonic Technology, Inc.

1973

Control Data Corporation (CDC) consolidated earnings reached $111 million. Combined financial services revenues totaled $1.5 billion. The CDC v. IBM anti-trust suit was settled, resulting in CDC acquiring the Service Bureau Corporation (SBC) from IBM. CDC acquires three data services operations from International Telephone and Telegraph Company. CDC increases its equity in Ticketron, Inc. to 99-1/2 percent.

CDC also acquires Systems Resources, Inc. CDC signs a ten-year agreement with the USSR for broad scientific and technical cooperation in the field of computer technology. Employees number 43,982.

1975

CDC's business focused on a broad range of planning, information management, accounting and administrative data processing services. They are also involved in software development, engineering, maintenance, education and other services and products. The educational computer system "Plato" was announced. Total employees reached 41,553.

1979

The CYBER 203 was announced. It was the most powerful Supercomputer built by CDC up to that time.

1980

The CYBER 205 was announced

1983

Control Data Corporation (CDC) uses its supercomputer operations division to create a new company, ETA Systems, Inc.

1984

Control Data Corporation (CDC) decided to phase-out of the plug-compatible peripheral equipment business based on long term strategic considerations. Communications Solutions, Inc. (CSI) was acquired from Visicorp for approximately $5 million. CDC consolidated earnings decreased to $31.6 million (down 80 percent from 1983) while combined revenues were $5 billion. Employees number 54,123. CDC faces liquidity problems due to downturn in computer industry resulting in excessive inventories. CDC undergoes restructuring activities during the years 1984 to 1986.

1988

In April, CDC announced the Cyber 960 series of mid range computers.

1989

Control Data Corporation (CDC) discontinued the ETA Systems supercomputer operation and streamlined the CYBER mainframe business. CDC underwent corporate staff reduction and a temporary realignment of its bank financing agreement. CDC sold off Action Data Services, makers of real-time data processing and support products, to Primerica Corporation. CDC sold off its Control Data Institutes (educational centers) to Human Capital Corporation.

1980-1993

CDC continued to experience significant growth and continued to acquire other companies to strengthen its position and widen its service base. By 1983, revenues hit $4.6 billion. During the 1980's, CDC experienced a series of slowdowns due to the economy and other factors. In the late 1980's, CDC took a series of steps to control costs and improve its overall strength. In 1991, CDC ranked 27th of the largest information technology suppliers.

1992

Control Data Corporation changed its name to Ceridian, and spun off a subsidiary company called Control Data Systems. Control Data Systems maintained the computer products and services part of the business.

1993

Control Data signed a contract with the People's Republic of China for a meteorological processing and forecasting system utilizing a

CP/M was an operating system for microcomputers developed in 1973 by Dr. Gary Kildall, a brilliant software engineer. In 1976, Dr. Kildall started selling CP/M for $75 a copy through "Dr. Dobb's Journal" (published by Jim Warren), and it sold well.

Dr. Kildall and his wife founded Digital Research (1976) and sales of CP/M continued to increase. By the end of the 1970's, Digital Research had over 900 different firms as clients. CP/M became the standard operating program for microcomputers in the early 1980's. By the mid 1980's, CP/M was running on over 300 different models of microcomputers.

When IBM planned to introduce its personal computer, they had some initial talks with Digital Research regarding CP/M. As it turned out, however, IBM entered into an agreement with Microsoft and the IBM PC came out in 1981 with PC DOS as its operating system. DOS gradually took the lead over CP/M, and became pretty much the standard by the end of the 1980's. DOS was actually modeled after CP/M.

It was estimated by Kildall that by 1987, there were over 200 million copies of CP/M in existence,and over 3,000 programs available for CP/M machines, many of them still in use today.

(References: "User Friendly," magazine, July 16, 1994, article: "Gary Kildall's Work Lives On;" and various references in the book "Gates" by Stephen Manes and Paul Andrews, Doubleday, 1993; and Robert Slater's excellent book "Portraits in Silicon," MIT Press, 1987.)